Wood Pasture and Parkland

WOOD PASTURE & PARKLAND

A Habitat Action Plan for Surrey (April 2002)

Introduction

“It is possible that our heritage of old trees, especially thousand-year-old oaks is the greatest biodiversity and cultural contribution we can make in Europe. The UK may have the greatest remaining remnants of old growth pasture woodland.” Butler, 2001. Lowland wood pasture and parkland is identified as a UK 'priority' habitat (UK Biodiversity Steering Group, 1995). This plan has been prepared as one of ten habitat action plans within the Surrey Biodiversity Action Plan and is designed to help implement national objectives and targets at the local level. Due to the overlap between habitat and land-use types it will be necessary to refer to the other Surrey Habitat Action Plans. In particular Lowland Unimproved Neutral and Acid Grassland and also: Lowland Heathland, Farmland, Open waters and Large Reedbeds, Wetlands and Woodland Habitat Action Plans (HAPs). These habitats are parts of the mosaic of habitats that make up wood pasture and parkland. However they will only be mentioned in this document as they are dealt with in detail in their respective HAPs.

The South East of England supports 70% of the UK's wood pasture and parkland. This is the highest proportion of any key habitat occurring in the South East. In Surrey there are more historic parks and gardens than in any other part of Great Britain, with the exception of Greater London (The Future of Surrey's Landscape and Woodlands, 1997).

1. Habitat Definition

Lowland wood pastures and parks are habitats where there has been a tradition of grazing livestock amongst trees. Typically wood pasture consists of trees, sometimes with scrub, in grazed grassland, heathland and/or woodland floral communities. The trees are often large and open-grown (often pollarded) occurring at various densities and ages. The canopy is at least partially open. Definitions for grasslands, heathland and woodland habitats can be found in other Surrey Habitat Action Plans, along with details of their management needs. Trees of great age are often a feature of this habitat. Dead wood on the ground, or on mature, over-mature, ancient, dying or dead trees, provides an extremely important habitat for a rich association of species. The following list gives features indicative of wood pasture. The more features that are present the more likely a site is to be considered wood pasture and of good quality:

Old maps/records. Oral evidence/tradition. Historical/archaeological features typical of wood pastures. Old, particularly ancient, trees are present. Large herbivores present, particularly livestock. A tree/woodland structure showing the impact of large herbivores. A vegetation mosaic of open and wooded communities. Often multiple generations of trees present. (After an unpublished definition of wood pasture by English Nature).

Wood pastures and parkland can have very different historical origins, and thus have a range of appearances, for instance in tree density and distribution. They can be formed from woodland that was grazed, but can also have originated from fields where most of the hedgerows were taken out leaving only the trees to grow on (common in parkland formed in the nineteenth century).

Relict wood pastures are those in which traditional management, particularly grazing, is no longer practised. Parkland often has a similar structure to wood pasture, with open grown trees surrounded by open spaces. Much parkland was managed as private wood pasture as were many royal woods.

Working wood pastures are those where an intact habitat is composed of free standing trees, scrub and grassland with tree management and the grazing of deer or livestock. Some parklands retain ancient trees in modified grassland and scrub.

The UK HAP refers to the following as wood pasture and parkland components:

• Lowland wood pastures and parklands derived from medieval forests and emparkments, wooded commons, parks and pastures with trees in them. Some have subsequently had a designed landscape superimposed in the 16th to 19th centuries. A range of native species usually predominates amongst the old trees but there may be non-native species that have been planted or have regenerated naturally.
• Parklands with their origins in the 19th century or later that contain much older trees derived from an earlier landscape.
• Under-managed and unmanaged wood pastures with veteran trees, in a matrix of secondary woodland or scrub that has developed by regeneration and/or planting.
• Parkland or wood pasture that has been converted to other land uses such as arable fields, forestry and amenity land, but where surviving veteran trees are of nature conservation interest. Some of the characteristic wood pasture and parkland species may have survived this change in state.

And excludes:

• Parklands with 19th century origins or later with none of the above characteristic's. However, these areas should be viewed as potential future Wood Pasture and Parklands. They are maturing habitats which will become increasingly ecologically diverse and contribute to existing cover and connectivity. (A useful definition of Wood Pasture and Parkland is given by the Forestry Commission: Revised definition for wood pasture.doc)

Biodiversity of Surrey's Wood Pasture and Parkland

This habitat is important for various reasons. It comprises structurally diverse woodlands with open habitats. Old tree growth is especially important to the diversity and abundance of much of the associated wildlife. Lichens, invertebrates and fungi are particularly important species of this habitat. They depend on old tree growth, which supports exceptionally rich communities. Dead wood is a very important habitat for specialist invertebrates and fungi as well as their predators. The mammal and breeding bird fauna found in wood pasture and parkland can be exceptionally rich where there is old growth.

Invisible biodiversity

Much of the important biodiversity dependent on this habitat is hidden in some way. Very few fungi produce the obvious fruiting bodies we call mushrooms, most remain hidden in the soil or in trees both dead and alive. Some species are microscopic. Saproxylic invertebrate species remain hidden for much of their life cycle in the dead wood they shelter in and feed on. Even bats can be very elusive as they have an ephemeral roosting pattern, tending to rotate their roosts. Weather changes will stimulate them to change a roost site from one aspect on a tree to another (e.g. west-facing to east-facing). Often a reported bat roost sighting cannot be verified as the bats have moved by the time a licensed bat worker arrives to check.

Thus a problem with all “invisible biodiversity” is under-representation in records. Species can only be recorded if they are seen or leave signs of their presence.

a) Epiphytes

Epiphytes are plants growing on other plants, without being parasitic. Various plants grow as epiphytes on trees; mosses, lichens and liverworts are important groups. The common polypody fern, Poypodium vulgare, is an epiphytic vascular plant.

In lowland Britain areas of existing or former wood pasture, with ancient trees, have been found to support epiphytes and invertebrates which are absent or very little recorded in other habitat types (Harding & Rose, 1986).

Lichens

Lichen communities have declined drastically in recent years; the reasons for this can be seen by looking at some of the needs of species-rich lichen communities:

• Communities take many years to colonise. Those of dry craggy oak bark take over 400 years (Read, 1999).
• Most lichens have poor dispersal ability and a distance of 2.5 km between suitable habitat spots can prevent colonisation / re-colonisation.
• Many of the rare species are very slow growing.
• Grazing alone may not provide enough light. Human activity such as pollarding is important for increasing the available habitat, by allowing light in.
• Lichens are very sensitive to air pollution. Pollution favours the growth of a few (now common) species of lichen. However most lichen species are intolerant of both air pollution and agricultural chemicals. The air pollutants that are particularly bad for lichens are mostly in decline. Thus the main pollution dangers for lichen at present are artificial fertilizers and slurry. These cause high levels of nitrogenous products on trees. This results in rapid algal growth, which overgrows lichens, preventing adequate photosynthesis.
• Mature and ancient oaks support the richest communities.

Lichens depend on mature and ancient trees, with no ivy and with enough light. Different species will colonise different parts of a tree, e.g. rain tracks, sheltered cracks, large horizontal branches and exposed heart-wood. In parkland, some exotic trees can be important for lichen, e.g. Norway maple, walnut and tulip trees. The Norway maple in particular provides an alternative habitat for species that would formerly have grown on elms (Read, 1999).

As Surrey has some very important wood pasture and parkland, with many ancient trees, it also has some interesting lichens. Albury Park is one of the best sites for lichens in Surrey. Here the lichen, Thelopsis rubella, grows in rain tracks and shallow crevices. It is a rough bark species indicative of ancient woodland and usually found on oaks and is rare in Surrey and extremely rare nationally. Three species of Calicium grow on the mature and ancient oaks; Surrey is one of the few places in which all three species occur. Calicium gaucellum and C. salicinum are extremely rare elsewhere in England, being found mostly in western and northern Britain. C. viride is more common. The Calicium spp. grow in sheltered sites on exposed standing dead-wood. Such lichens are part of the relic colonies of ancient oaks, and their presence shows that there has been a long continuity of these trees. Likewise their survival will depend on this continuity.

Mosses and liverworts

Epiphytic mosses grow on old and ancient trees in a variety of microhabitats such as rain tracks, exposed roots, sheltered sections of bark, cracks and crevices. Each species prefers different conditions. They usually grow fairly low down on ancient trees where they are particularly susceptible to agricultural contamination. Old oak, ash, field maple and beech trees provide the best habitats for mosses. Hornbeam, sycamore and hawthorn also provide a good habitat. Epiphytic mosses flourish on old trees where light reaches the boles of the trees whilst a high enough humidity is maintained. These conditions are often created in wood pasture.

b) Fungi

"Fungi are fundamental to the growth of a tree and fulfil an important role at all stages in its life." Helen Read, 2000 Almost all plants form mutually beneficial associations with certain types of fungi, these are called mycorrhizal associations. Mycorrhizal associations are essential to the health of most vascular plants, and trees are no exception. Mycorrhizal fungi can give defence against pathogenic fungi as well as providing otherwise unavailable nutrients, usually phosphorus and nitrogen. In exchange the fungi will take in carbohydrates, produced by photosynthesis, from the plant. One oak may support and be supported by many different species of mycorrhizal fungi at the same time. The fungi can stretch out many metres from a plant partner, often forming associations with other plants of the same or different species. In this way a complex set of interactions takes place out of our sight within the soil. Often no signs of the fungi are visible above the soil as relatively few species produce visible fruiting bodies, e.g. the agarics and the boletes. In Surrey, the scarce Boletus radicans forms associations with oaks. In healthy soil seedling plants can easily meet and make associations with one of the several species of fungi they need for healthy growth. If the soil is ploughed the fungal threads, hyphae, are severed, and the soil structure drastically altered. It has proved impossible to grow more than a handful of species in culture or experiments. Fungi are easily destroyed by soil disturbance. The complex interactions between fungi and plants and between different species of fungi are known only very superficially (Merryweather, 2001; Gange & Brown, 1997).

Old and ancient trees often become hollow. This occurs when the non-living heartwood is broken down by certain fungi. Trees can produce aerial roots to take in the nutrients recycled by fungi from the heartwood, or individual limbs. Trees benefit from the release of previously locked-up nutrients that occurs in this process. They also become lighter, which is helpful for the roots (less likely to uproot) and more flexible in winds. The various species of fungi that inhabit non-living wood do not affect the surrounding live wood.

Many of the rarest fungi in the UK are those that hollow out old trees and those that form mycorrhizal associations with old trees.

Also important are species which decompose leaves and fallen wood. The dung of grazing animals provides a habitat for fungi, although most species are intolerant of chemicals, such as ivermectins (a de-worming treatment), excreted in the dung.

Species such as the oak polypore, Piptoporus quercinus (Buglossoporus pulvinus), and the tree hedgehog, Hericium erinaceum, depend on the dead and fallen wood of old trees. Both of these endangered fungi are present in Surrey. Their future depends on the continuity of old and ancient trees, on standing dead wood, and on allowing fallen trees and boughs to remain intact on the ground.

The range of fungi and fungal activities produce food and / or shelter, in and around mature, old and ancient trees, for a range of other organisms. These include invertebrates, birds and bats.

c) Invertebrates

Dead wood is an extremely important habitat for a variety of invertebrates. Up to a third of woodland insects, including a large number of rare species, are saproxylic (dependent on dead wood). Saproxylic species have been identified as the most threatened community of invertebrates throughout Europe (Read, 2000). The two invertebrate groups with the highest numbers of saproxylic members are the flies (Diptera) and the beetles (Coleoptera), each of which have many hundreds of species dependent on dead or decaying wood. Surrey is an important county for many wood pasture and parkland invertebrate specialists. Rainieria calceata is a stilt fly that is only found in Surrey and in Windsor Great Park (Surrey and Berkshire). The heart moth, Dicycla oo, depends on old open grown oaks in wood pasture and Ashtead Common is one of the very few places in Britain where it is found on a regular basis. Surrey is the national stronghold for this scarce species.

Dead wood in partial shade supports the most invertebrate species. Some species are active decomposers; some feed on the fungi that grow on dead wood; and others are specialist predators and parasites of the dead wood habitat. However specialist species such as some solitary bees, wasps, and longhorn beetles depend on sunbaked dead wood. Dead wood in a range of situations provides a variety of habitats, all of which will be used by some of the many different invertebrate species. Aderus ocultus is a beetle which depends on the dead wood of stag-horn oaks. Rot-holes in mature and ancient trees provide a habitat for the hoverfly, Callicera aurata. On heathland sites this species may depend on rot-holes in silver birch trees. For some specialist species the unusual and precise conditions required will mean that very few trees provide them with the right habitat.

Tree stumps left in situ are vital for several specialist species. The stag beetle, Lucanus cervus, is an important Surrey species and its larvae develop in the wood of old stumps. Also in Surrey, the tree ant, Lasius brunneus, depends on old oaks and limes and dead tree stumps.

Many saproxylic invertebrates have a saproxylic larval stage but become predators, pollen or nectar feeders as adults. The retention of nectar sources, such as hawthorn, bramble and other flowers, close to host trees is important, as many of these invertebrate species do not travel far. Ischnomera cyanea, a metallic, greeny-blue coloured flower beetle, feeds on hawthorn and hogweed flowers as an adult and the larvae develop in rotting wood. Psilota anthracina, a metallic-blue coloured hoverfly, breeds in sap-runs where its larvae will develop, whilst the adults feed on hawthorn flowers.

Invertebrates often require different habitats at different stages in their life-cycles. As wood pasture and parkland consists of a range of habitats it can provide an ideal overall habitat for such species.

Isolation and fragmentation of the remaining parkland and wood pasture sites has become a problem. Many of the species dependent on ancient trees are unable to move between sites due to their poor powers of dispersal and the increasing distances they need to travel. This highlights the importance of ensuring availability and continuity of dead wood habitats.

d) Flora

The ground flora of wood pasture is typically very species poor. This is often due to grazing, and sometimes results in specialist ground flora such as heathland communities. However unimproved neutral grassland can be very species rich with many broad-leaved flowering plants. In Surrey wood pasture is usually of relic woodland and grassland species. Relatively constant species are wood spurge Euphorbia amygdaloides and butchers’-broom Ruscus aculeatus, which are indicator species of ancient woodlands and persist in many of Surrey’s wood pastures. Butcher’s broom is particularly common on Ashtead Common.

In parklands, the flora can be varied and sometimes an important habitat in its own right, such as the unimproved neutral grassland in Farnham Park, a former deer park, and the unimproved acid and neutral grasslands of Ashtead Common.

“An oak grows for 300 years, Rests for 300 years, And spends the next 300 years gracefully expiring” An old English saying.

The ancient trees of Surrey’s wood pastures tend to be pedunculate oak, Quercus robur. Ashtead Common has many pedunculate oaks of varying ages, over 2,300 of which are ancient pollards. Beech, Fagus sylvatica, although not common within wood pasture, is found around the edges of sites where it has grown out from previously laid hedges. Oaks, especially ancient oaks, are a habitat of immense importance. Ash, Fraxinus excelsior, and beech also support diverse and intricate communities of epiphytes, fungi and invertebrates. Albury Park has some ancient pollarded sweet chestnut trees, Castanea sativa.

Slow growing and maturing trees generally support the most interesting range of species, however the faster growing trees can also be important. Birch, Betula spp., provides a habitat for a good range of dead wood species relatively quickly. Many species, normally associated only with ancient oaks, will be present on younger oaks or such species as sweet chestnut when in close proximity to an ancient oak. However once the ancient oak has gone the dependent species will disappear from the surrounding trees. Where there is a gap in available ancient oaks, nearby ancient sweet chestnuts can provide a temporary habitat for many species. Horse chestnut, Aesculus hippocastanum, has good sap runs and supports a good range of species and sycamore, Acer pseudoplatanus, supports a reasonable range (Read, 2000).

In some parklands both oak species are found: Q. robur and the sessile oak Q. petraea. as well as ash, open grown beeches, and a variety of other native and foreign species. These are found growing amidst varied settings, from the very open spaces typical of deer parks, to a mixture of scrub, woodland, streams, lakes and open grassy or heathy spaces.

e) Birds

Woodland and scrub often have the greatest diversity of species along their margins, where birds can take advantage of both the open surrounding habitats and the woodland cover. Wood pasture and parkland can provide large areas of mixed habitats that are beneficial to many species, particularly where grazing is not intensive and more cover is available. Nightingales, Luscinia megarhynchos, whitethroat, Sylvia communis and willow warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus amongst many other species will nest where mixed scrub is present in wood pasture and parkland.

Dead wood provides valuable nesting sites for birds such as tits, Parus spp., nuthatches, Sitta europaea, woodpeckers (green, Picus viridis, great spotted, Dendrocopus major and lesser spotted, D. minor), stock doves, Columba oenas, redstarts, Phoenicurus phoenicurus, jackdaws, Corvus monedula, starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, and owls. One third of all woodland birds nest in holes or cavities in dead trees. Although a few species will excavate their own holes in mature and ancient trees, most rely on ready-made cavities or those previously excavated by woodpeckers. Kestrels, Falco tinnunculus, grey herons, Ardea cinerea, and buzzards, Buteo buteo, will nest where there is not regular disturbance by humans. Buzzards are now breeding in a number of places around Surrey. Park woodlands are of importance for grey herons and nearly all the herons that nest in Surrey do so in areas of parkland without public access.

Wood pastures and parklands are especially good for tawny owls, Strix aluco, and little owls, Athene noctua, both of which nest in tree holes in old and ancient trees where open spaces are available. Barn owls, Tyto alba, will sometimes nest in tree holes.

A mosaic of long and shorter patches of grassland provides a diversity of habitat for invertebrates, which provide important energy-rich food for birds to feed their young. This mosaic can be established by extensive grazing or by a range of mechanical means. Fallen dead wood, left to lie, provides food in the form of invertebrates and also snow-free feeding sites in winter for ground feeding birds. Large clumps of bramble separated by grass form a good habitat for invertebrates and small birds and again a winter feeding area.

Grassland and heathland of wood pasture and parkland provide a habitat for many species (see the relevant HAPs) and these sometimes need specific management. For example the skylark project in Richmond Park (Old Surrey) where the main nesting area for the ground nesting skylark, Alauda arvensis, is given protection from humans and dogs during the breeding season.

Mandarin ducks do well on parkland waters. Although a non-native species these birds are internationally important. In China, their native country, they are a seriously threatened species. Britain and Japan now support the main populations.

f) Mammals

All of the 16 British bat species depend on trees to some extent, and will forage for insects around trees. Many bat species will roost in mature and ancient trees. Several species of bat use ancient trees to hibernate in, finding cracks and crevices to hide in, particularly in hollow trees, where they are protected from weather changes within a thick walled cavity.

Noctules, Nyctalus noctula, and Pipistrelles, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, have been recorded at Gatton Park, as have Daubenton’s bats, Myotis daubentoni, which hunt over the water and frequently use trees as roosts. In Surrey noctules are dependent on old and ancient trees, they roost mainly in rot-holes and woodpecker holes. Leisler's bat, Nyctalus leisleri, is rare in Surrey and will roost in trees. The whiskered bat, Myotis mystacinus, is found in open and wooded country and will roost in trees, it is likely that it uses suitable trees for hibernation as well. Serotine, Eptesicus serotinus, and Bechstein’s bats, Myotis bechsteinii, are both southern species and of importance in Surrey. Bechstein’s are particularly dependent on this habitat as they roost exclusively in trees, usually using woodpecker holes, they are extremely rare in Surrey as elsewhere.

The rich invertebrate populations associated with old and ancient trees are an attractive food source for many species of bats. Many species will forage for food around open grown trees. The brown long-eared bat, Plecotus auritus, will feed around ancient trees but stays very close to its roosts, usually within 2 km. Most species of bat will only fly along hedgerows or near woodland margins, not venturing out into open spaces. However noctules and serotine bats are happy to fly across open areas.

It is mandatory to seek advice from English Nature before carrying out any work on a tree which is a known bat roost. This applies whether or not the bats are present at the time.

Roe deer, Capreolus capreolus, is the only native deer species to be found wild in Surrey. Roe deer and the introduced muntjac deer, Muntiacus reevsi, are found in wood pasture only where they can remain close to woodland. Fallow, Dama dama, and red deer, Cervus elaphus, are often present in enclosed and managed wood pasture and parkland.

Other mammals such as stoats, Mustela erminea, weasels, M. nivalis and mice will use holes in ancient trees, including those at ground level. Wood pasture and parkland can be of importance for badgers, Meles meles.

g) Reptiles and amphibians

All of the native and introduced species of amphibian and reptile may be encountered in wood pasture and parkland. The habitat is of importance for the great crested newt, Triturus cristatus. Newts, toads and frogs will use pools for breeding and the surrounding areas for foraging. Common toads, Bufo bufo, in particular are associated with wooded areas.

Wood pasture and parkland provide hibernation sites for amphibian species, especially amongst the roots and bark of fallen and mature trees in wetter areas. Reptiles and amphibians use cavities and loose bark on over-mature and ancient trees to rest in.

Of the reptiles, the grass snake, Natrix natrix, will regularly hunt in pasture. The adder, Vipera berus, slow worm, Anguis fragilis, and common lizard, Lacerta vivipera, will also use this habitat for foraging and as “corridors” for moving between other habitats.

2. Current Distribution and Status

Surrey is a stronghold for wood pasture and parkland, having a relatively large amount of the habitat, with many ancient trees.

Some of the main wood pasture and parkland sites found in Surrey include: Ashtead Common (an important site nationally, ranking in the top 10 as a National Nature Reserves in Britain), Albury Park, Windsor Great Park, Gatton Park, Farnham Park, Gravelly Hill, Wotton Estate, Wisley Royal Horticultural Society Gardens, Witley, Peperharrow, Henley Park and Hampton Estate (including Puttenham Common). The National Trust owns many wood pasture and parklands sites of interest in Surrey e.g. Hatchlands and Bookham Common. There are also many other wood pasture and parkland sites under various ownership in Surrey. The “Surrey Historic Landscape Characterisation” gives further details of the extent of this habitat in Surrey (Bannister, 2001).

Natural Areas and Wood Pasture & Parkland in Surrey

Natural Areas, defined by English Nature, are sub-divisions of England, each with a characteristic association of wildlife and natural features. They provide a way of interpreting the ecological variations of the country in terms of natural features, illustrating the distinctions between one area and another. Each Natural Area has a unique identity resulting from the interaction of landforms, geology, land use, wildlife and human impact.

Surrey contains five Natural Areas: the London Basin, High Weald, Low Weald, North Downs, and Wealden Greensand. Of these, the London Basin contains the most interest for wood pasture and parkland, and is indeed of national importance for its parklands and ancient trees. At Ashtead Common, Richmond Park (Old Surrey) and Windsor Forest and Great Park, oak pollards and ancient trees predominate. These sites support nationally important communities of fungi, lichens and invertebrates and are covered by a variety of statutory designations. These include statutory sites: Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), National Nature Reserves (NNRs) and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), and non-statutory sites of county importance selected as County Wildlife Sites otherwise known as Sites of Nature Conservation Importance (SNCIs).

3. Factors Affecting the Habitat

1. Loss of ancient trees due to:

• Cessation of traditional management e.g. pollarding and coppicing, leading to trees collapsing or being felled for safety reasons. Lack of continued management has been a particular problem with ancient pollards.
• Disease and physiological stress, such as drought and storm damage.
• Competition for resources with surrounding younger trees.
• Lack of understanding of their needs – such as allowing younger trees to out-compete them and allowing excess compaction to their roots through trampling, agriculture and recreation.
• A misunderstanding of their importance and value within the landscape, for example people may “tidy up” ancient trees.
• Perceptions of safety and tidiness – It is easy to kill an ancient tree by over-cutting. Contractors often have no experience of the best methods when dealing with an ancient tree. Different tree species and individual trees will respond differently to tree surgery.
• Historical landscape preservation – For example, ancient avenues of trees are often replaced with younger trees as they get old and die, when these trees are still important ancient trees for wildlife and in the landscape
• Vandalism – Ancient trees attract people to them and they are often subject to damage through fire and other types of vandalism
• Soil compaction and erosion causing damage to roots and associated mycorrhizal fungi, due to people, trampling by livestock and agricultural vehicles, and from car parking or other built landscapes.
• Excavation works including digging trenches for cables and drainage. Excavation work should not be carried out within a minimum distance of 15 times the diameter of the trunk at breast height from the tree.

2. Influences from intensive agriculture including:

• Soil cultivation too close to trees.
• Pasture loss through conversion to arable and other land-uses.
• Agricultural improvement to pasture through reseeding, deep ploughing, fertiliser and other chemical treatments, leading to tree root damage, loss of nectar-bearing plants, damage to epiphytes and to the soil and fungal associations.
• Spray drift from nearby fields can cause damage to ancient trees

3. Changes in grazing levels including:

• Under-grazing leading to loss of habitat structure through bracken and scrub invasion
• Over-grazing leading to bark browsing, soil compaction and loss of nectar plants.

4. Changes in the environment including:

• Changes to ground-water levels leading to water stress and tree death, resulting from abstraction, drainage, neighbouring development, roads, prolonged drought and climate change.
• Isolation and fragmentation of the remaining parklands and wood pasture sites in the landscape. Many of the species dependent on old trees are unable to move between these sites due to their poor powers of dispersal and the increasing distances they need to travel.
• Air pollution impacts negatively upon fungi and bryophytes. Lichen are particularly susceptible. Ancient trees and many other vascular plants are also affected.
• Pollution from traffic, e.g. salt run-off from roads and car parks.
• High nutrient levels for example, from dog excreta. Some wood pasture fungi grow on animal faeces but the chemical components of today’s horse and dog faeces (e.g. ivermectins for horse de-worming) prohibit the growth of most fungi.
• Lack of younger generations of trees, producing a skewed age structure, and a discontinuous habitat for species dependent on ancient trees and dead wood.
• Risk of fire - from lightning and from vandalism, e.g. in hollow trees. Also from bonfires where unseen root damage can prove fatal to a tree or can ruin soil structure and the ability of associated fungi and other “invisible biodiversity” to function.

5. Loss of associated species due to:

• Inappropriate tree surgery - Table 3.1 gives the best times to work on an ancient tree taking its dependent associated species into consideration.
• Loss of an ancient tree – This can cause loss of associated species from surrounding mature or younger trees. Many dependent species can live on other trees only in the presence of an ancient tree.
• Invasive species can drive out and damage natives. Rhododendrons and grey squirrels are well known problems affecting this habitat. In Surrey, ring-necked parakeets, Psittacula krameri, have become naturalised along the Thames Valley where they thrive in parklands such as Bushy Park and Hampton Court deer park (both Old Surrey) as well as Windsor Great Park. The parakeets use nest holes in trees, and an evidence base is beginning to build up suggesting that they add may adversely to competition with other hole-nesting native birds. Muntjac deer, Muntiacus reevesii is a successful and sometimes problematic non-native species in this habitat.
• Lack of dog control – Dogs cause disturbance and harm to ground nesting birds if not kept under close control. This can cause loss of woodcock, for example, a ground nesting bird associated with wood pasture.

Month	J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
Trees	Y	Y	Y	x	x	x	Y	Y	x	x	Y	Y
Bats	x	x	Y	Y	Y	x	x	x	Y	Y	Y	x
Birds	Y	Y	x	x	x	x	x	x	Y	Y	Y	Y
Epiphytes	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Fungi	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Invertebrates	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y

Table 3.1 The ideal time of year to do work on ancient trees according to the organisms associated with them. Letters along the top correspond to the months of the year. Note that the time for the tree is the most important as it is the habitat for all the other groups. (After Read, 2000).

4. Cultural Significance and Importance to People

It is likely that wood pasture represents an ancient habitat, dating back to the original wild wood. It was also likely to have been abundant as a natural ancient habitat. A well-accepted view of the vegetation before human interference, is of woodland with open areas of grass or heathland grazed by large herbivores (Vera 2000; Rose 1993; Rackham 1986; Green 2001). As such it is of great importance. Evolution is a process that happens over time. The longer a habitat has been around and the more available it is, the greater the number of species that are likely to have become adapted to exist in it, and on or with each other. Wood pasture demonstrates this richness and complexity in its biodiversity and in the interactions between its species.

The complexity of life associated with ancient trees, and with wood pasture and parkland, is part of the richness surrounding us and on which we depend. It includes some relatively unexplored areas, especially in the “invisible biodiversity”, such as the changing and complex fungal associations of young, mature, ancient, dying and dead trees.

William Gilpin (1724 - 1804) the famous writer on the picturesque was inspired by the New Forest glades near his home at Boldre. His ideas on landscape, put into practice by his nephew, William Sawrey Gilpin at places such as Scotney Castle, have become part of the general consciousness. The landscape of wood pasture and parkland is one in which people feel at home. They enjoy the sense of place and enclosure of wood pasture, the ancient trees, the lakes and ponds and the views within and beyond parkland.

Ancient trees tend to inspire us and give us a feeling of awe. This is not surprising, the time they span in one lifetime can take us back beyond our own family trees - few of us know our history for 30 generations. They also span time back to the primaeval forest or wild wood. An old oak may well be only three generations from the original wild wood and it and its acorns and seedlings are therefore of great interest genetically.

Britain is responsible for the majority of Europe’s ancient trees, Spain being the only other European country still to have a significant number of ancient trees (Green). Butler (2001) as quoted in the introduction, states that our heritage of ancient trees and old growth wood pasture is one of the greatest contributions of biodiversity and cultural that we can make in Europe.

5. Benefits to the Community and Private Sector

Wood pasture and parkland are used for grazing cows, sheep and deer, and can be part of viable economic farming systems. Wood from wood pastures can be "harvested" as a renewable resource. The conservation needs of wood pasture make non-intensive (extensive) farming carried out without chemicals an important aim. There is much interest amongst consumers and retailers in purchasing produce from such "environmentally friendly" farming systems. Many people are interested in the health benefits to themselves, the conditions the animals are kept in and the impact on the environment. A well-managed wood pasture, in conservation terms, can provide all these benefits.

The large amount of wood pasture and parkland in Surrey helps to give the county its distinctive character. Parklands make attractive places to visit for outings and for regular exercise. Such resources make Surrey a desirable location for individuals and businesses. Trees, lakes and open spaces are also vital in helping to maintain quality of life in a densely populated county.

6. Potential

• To bring derelict wood pastures back into positive management, often through restoration of grazing or other techniques such as mechanical mowing at appropriate times.
• To bring over-grazed wood pastures and parklands back into positive management, at optimum grazing levels or by other means of appropriate cyclical management of scrub and/or grassland.
• To address the problem of gaps in generations of trees. This can be achieved with a combination of planting for the future, specific treatment of younger to mature trees already present at a site and by planting some quick growing trees to help to provide dead wood. Techniques such as pollarding help the aging process through premature decay.

*To encourage landowners to leave an appropriate distance around trees especially ancient ones. This is vital for the trees’ health and also allows dead wood to lie undisturbed where it falls. Landowners should aim to leave a minimum area, beneath the tree, of the canopy drip line to reduce the risk of damage to the root area.

• To promote the production of organic meat from an extensive grazing system. Wood pasture and parklands are often ideal sites for conversion to organic production. Promoting the meat from such sites as extensively produced and organic, can benefit the producer whilst helping to ensure a better environment for the biodiversity of the site.

7. Current Action

i. Site Protection and legal status

A number of mechanisms exist to ensure the protection and conservation of wood pasture and parkland. Ashtead Common, one of the most important sites for this habitat in Surrey is notified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) by English Nature, as well as being a National Nature Reserve (NNR). Such sites are protected by specific legislation. In addition, the beech/oak woods on the acid soils of Windsor Forest & Great Park (part of which occurs in Surrey) are in the process of being notified by English Nature as an internationally important Special Area of Conservation (SAC). Other designations are identified in the Surrey Structure Plan and Local Authority Plans and highlight the importance of these areas within the planning process. They include Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (the Surrey Hills and High Weald AONBs), Local Nature Reserves (LNRs) and the non-statutory Sites of Nature Conservation Importance (SNCIs). Farnham Park is a proposed LNR and is already designated as an Historic Park.

Policy PE12 of the 1994 Surrey Structure Plan states that this habitat should be identified in Local Plans and that "development will not normally be permitted which would have a materially adverse effect" (The Future of Surrey's Landscape and Woodlands, 1997).

Other protection includes the requirement for a felling licence from the Forestry Commission for most tree felling. All applications for felling licences are assessed against the requirements of the UK Forestry Standard (1998) which takes into account biodiversity considerations. Tree Preservation Orders (TPOs) and Conservation Areas, designated by Local Authorities, also help prevent unnecessary damage to, or inappropriate felling of, trees. Individual trees and groups may be afforded protection under the Town and Country Planning Act, 1990. Ancient trees are particularly at risk because felling for safety reasons is exempt from all of the above.

The value of the habitat and of individual old trees is recognised in various development plans and landscape designations by English Heritage, e.g. Farnham Park, designated an Historic Park.

There are also several important wood pasture and parkland sites without any form of designation, some of which are well-managed for conservation and others that have the potential for enhancement under appropriate management. A co-ordinated approach is required to conserve such habitats by reversing the trend of habitat degradation and addressing the issues of continuity of habitat, especially in relation to ancient trees and tree ages.

The violet click beetle Limoniscus violaceus, thought to be present in Surrey, is one of several species which are fully protected under the 1981 Wildlife and Countryside Act, as are all nesting birds. Bats are European protected species. The acts also offer protection to their “place of shelter”, with authorisation needed from English Nature or DEFRA to do anything that would affect such sites, whether or not the animals are present.

ii. Management

"10,000 oaks of 100 years old are no substitute for one 500 year old oak" Rackham, 1986.

There are several wood pasture and parkland sites in Surrey where conservation of biodiversity is a major consideration in current management practices. Others, often former deer parks, are neglected to various degrees, and although many are still rich in important biodiversity at present, they will start to lose species without suitable management.

The wood pasture of Ashtead Common is managed to ensure future generations of ancient trees. Young trees naturally generated on the site are transplanted to chosen growing positions with very high success rates. Pollards already present are managed but no new pollards will be created. Instead, unpollarded open-grown trees will provide future generations of ancient trees.

The National Trust has recently carried out an investigation into the management of grazed parkland (Cox & Sanderson, 2001) and this, combined with the national and county habitat action plans, should help with awareness of best practice in wood pasture and parkland properties.

Some woods in Surrey were wood pastures so long ago that restoration should only be considered if the wood is otherwise of very poor value. Nower Wood is recorded as having been a grazed woodland in the Doomsday Book but is now an important part of Surrey’s ancient woodland and is managed as such.

Current management needs

The main management requirements for wood pasture and parkland are:

• Grazing needs to be established at low intensity, i.e. extensive grazing.
• The different groups of conservation importance in wood pasture and parkland have different needs. Lichens thrive under slightly heavier grazing than that which is optimal for invertebrates and fungi. Restricting animal access to various areas of a site can help with this situation.
• Care of mature, old and ancient trees:
• Mature and older trees need to have an undisturbed area surrounding them. An open grown tree may achieve a canopy spread of over 30m at maturity.
• The ground should not be disturbed around trees. Ploughing, trampling and car parking cause damage to roots and the sensitive mycorrhizal fungi essential for a tree’s health.
• Fertilizer applications are unnecessary and detrimental to the tree’s health, as are any chemicals. These can damage or destroy the mycorrhizal fungi, leaving the tree unprotected against pathogenic fungi. Trees in fertilized areas may appear healthy until times of stress, such as drought.
• Scrub and young trees should not be allowed to encroach on the space needed around mature and older trees.
• Avoid altering the soil moisture with any new drainage that would affect mature, old or ancient trees.
• If a tree has to have surgery, ensure that the minimum possible is carried out, by an expert on ancient trees. Read (2000) provides a checklist to ascertain if felling or surgery are the best option and how much should be carried out.
• The next generation of trees:
• This can be ensured by planting cohorts of new trees every 10 years.
• Seed or saplings should be chosen from existing trees with good characteristics, e.g. from an ancient tree in the hope that longevity is genetically inherited; or a tree that responded well to pollarding if pollarding is to be continued with future generations.
• Seeds or saplings should originate from the site where they are to be grown. If this is not possible they should be from a nearby site, i.e. of local provenance.
• Young trees need protection from grazing animals.
• An oak may take 200 years before producing any dead wood. To ensure continuity of habitat for species dependent on dead wood, some fast growing species can be planted to provide an element of dead wood on a site (although not a complete remedy this can help). Where the problem is urgent more immediate solutions are required (as suggested below).
• Trees that would otherwise be felled for thinning can be artificially aged e.g. by ring barking, and left to provide standing dead wood. This is a temporary measure only. Standing dead wood produced naturally on mature and ancient trees provides a better and more stable habitat.
• Features normally associated with age can be artificially induced on carefully selected younger trees. Examples include: breaking branches or leaving coronet cuts instead of sawing off flush; drilling holes in forks and crowns to increase water retention; inoculating healthy heart wood with heart wood rotting fungi; damaging bark to induce sap runs or decay (Read, 2000).
• Creating new pollards; see "Veteran Trees: A guide to good management" (Read, 2000) for a useful practical outline.
• Management needs to consider all the groups present or likely to be present, see table 3.1.
• Chemicals and artificial fertilizers are detrimental to many groups. Lichens in particular are very sensitive and hedgerows, between wood pasture and nearby fields, are essential to help prevent spray drift as well as providing wind breaks. However it is preferable to have neighbouring fields chemical-free.
• Lichens also need to have a certain level of light reaching to the tree trunk and for the trunk to be free of ivy. Ivy can also smother bracket fungi. However, ivy is not poisonous or generally harmful to trees, and provides a useful habitat and food source for other groups such as bats, bird, and butterflies.
• Before any work is done on an ancient, old or mature tree, a bat expert should carry out a survey. Bats can creep into tiny cracks. If a crack is created by the weight of a large branch, the removal of the branch will close the crack and any bats within are killed.
• Stumps of trees should be retained as a specific habitat for certain saproxylic species. The stag beetle depends on such habitat for egg-laying and during its larval stage. Surrey is an important county for stag beetles, an increasingly uncommon species.
• Most invertebrates and fungi depending on dead wood prefer a shaded moist location. Fallen wood should be left where it falls. If it must be moved it should be placed in partial shade. Living old and ancient trees continue to create more dead wood of different types (e.g. in the crown) and provide shade.
• Historic and landscaped parkland may have specific needs:
• Avenues of old or ancient trees need to be maintained by ensuring there are future generations of trees. Planting whole new rows of same species trees on either side of an existing avenue is one solution.
• Perceptions of tidiness and safety issues need to be dealt with sensitively. Solutions could involve restricting access around an ancient tree where surgery would otherwise be necessary. Where "tidy" landscaping is perceived as important and there is public access, information boards can explain the importance of dead wood as a habitat for many groups, including many rare and endangered species.

iii. Advice

A number of organisations provide an advisory role for land managers and farmers, including English Nature, Surrey Wildlife Trust, the Ancient Tree Forum, the Woodland Trust, Forestry Commission, the Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group (FWAG), English Heritage, the Department for the Environment, Farming and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and the Environment Agency (for pollution and water issues). The type of advice provided includes guidance on management and restoration, along with advice on how to obtain grant aid for projects, and advice on the relevant legislation and codes of good practice for the protection of wood pasture and parkland. FWAG also produces “Whole Farm Conservation Plans” and “Farm Biodiversity Action Plans” with the aim of integrating conservation objectives across the whole farm. At a more local level the various countryside projects such as the Wey Valley Project also provide valuable advice with the aim of encouraging sympathetic management.

Invaluable tools for wood pasture and parkland managers include the English Nature Veteran Tree Initiative publications and the handbook “Veteran Trees: A guide to good management” (Read, 2000); and the practical handbook “Habitat Management for Invertebrates” produced by the UK Joint Nature Conservation Committee (Peter Kirby, 2001).

The Surrey Wood Pasture and Parkland Working Group will run training courses for landowners, contractors, graziers, advisers and officers in practical wood pasture and parkland management, creation, enhancement techniques and grant schemes. These courses will be run from the year 2002.

iv. Research and Monitoring

English Nature undertakes regular monitoring of all SSSIs. It is also in the process of creating a wood pasture and parkland web site and database (the trial website can be seen at www.blue-bag.com/project/parks). Surrey Wildlife Trust carries out monitoring and surveying of wildlife sites in the county and holds a great deal of biological data and records. The county of Surrey is particularly well recorded in most groups, bryophytes however tend to be under-recorded. The “invisible biodiversity” of Surrey’s wood pasture and parkland is by its nature hard to see and at present is poorly recorded. Actions in this HAP include identifying indicator species and increasing levels of monitoring.

Funding

Environmental Stewardship

Environmental Stewardship is a funding scheme which provides grant aid to farmers and land managers to deliver effective environmental management of their land. It's aim is to :

• Conserve biodiversity and wildlife
• Maintain and enhance landscape and character
• Protect natural resources and the historic environment
• Promote public access and understanding of the countryside.

There are three elements to the scheme:

• Entry Level (ELS)- A whole farm scheme open to all farmers and land managers who manage their land conventionally.
• Organic Entry Level Stewardship (OELS)- a whole farm scheme open to farmers who manage whole or part of their land organically.
• Higher Level Stewardship (HLS)- which aim is to deliver significant environmental benefits in conjunction with the previous two schemes.

Higher Level Stewardship is targeted towards specific BAP habitats, of which Wood Pasture and Parkland and traditional orchards are included. As a requirement of the scheme, participants are required to produce a farm Environment Plan, specific targeted features such as Scheduled Ancient Monuments and ancient trees are recorded. There are annual payments for management of a specific habitat i.e. lowland hay meadows and capital payments for the funding of specific projects such as pond creation or the management of veteran trees. The scheme is administered by the Rural Development Service www.defra.gov.uk/.

English Woodland Grant Scheme

Administered by the Forestry Commission (www.forestry.gov.uk/grants), the scheme is aimed at sites with al least 20% canopy cover or where replanting will achieve this. There are two main aims of the scheme:

• Sustain and increase the public benefit given by existing woodlands
• Help create new woodland which will give additional public benefit.

There are two main types of grant :

• Stewardship of existing woodland
• Creation of new woodland

Stewardship grants

• Woodland Planning Grants (WGS)- for the preparation of plans to assist in the management of woodland to meet the UK Woodland Assurance Standard.
• Woodland Assessment Grant WAG-for the gathering of information to make informed management decisions.
• Woodland Regeneration Grant (WRG)- which supports desirable change in woodland composition through natural regeneration and restocking after felling.
• Woodland Improvement Grant (WIG)- work in woodland to create, enhance and sustain public benefits.
• Woodland Management Grants (WMG)- payments towards the additional costs of providing and sustaining higher quality public benefits from existing woodland.

Grants for the creation of new woodland

• Woodland Creation Grant (WCG)-For encouraging the creation of new woodlands where they can deliver the greatest public benefit. Now incorporated annual Farm Woodland Payments.

Further information can be found on http://www.forestry.gov.uk

Other Grants

Natural England has limited funds for local biodiversity grants, which are available through it's regional teams http://www.naturalengland.org.uk. Grants (of up to £50,000) for biodiversity projects are available through the landfill tax credits administered by Biffaward. To be eligible, applicants are required to meet the following criteria.

• The project site must be within 25miles of a Biffa operation and within 10 miles of any landfill site.
• The project has specific targets which relate to Biodiversity Action plans and has the support of key agencies.
• A management plan is in place for the species/habitat involved.
• The organisation is registered by Entrust as an Enrolled Environment Body. Further information is available at http://www.biffaward.org.uk

The Heritage Lottery can be used to fund environmental improvements for the public benefit.

8. Objectives

National objectives

The National Habitat Action Plan objectives and proposed targets for wood pasture and parkland in the UK cover habitat conservation, restoration and expansion. They include the need to secure favourable condition of key sites and, at appropriately targeted areas, to restore management or expand the habitat.

Surrey Objectives

1. Maintain the hectarage of all existing wood pasture and parkland by preventing loss and damage.

2. Ensure favourable management is put into practice for all wood pasture and parkland and its ancient trees, taking into account the various features of interest, with the aim that management is carried out under agreed management schemes wherever possible.

3. Map existing wood pasture and parkland in Surrey. Build upon the “Surrey Historic Landscape Characterisation” (Bannister & Wills, 2001) which maps wood pasture and parkland in Surrey from map and book information.

4. Restore and create areas of wood pasture to extend and buffer existing sites. Recreate habitat on neglected or overgrazed sites, prioritising sites where ancient trees stand and not neglecting heaths and commons where open grown selected trees can be allowed to grow.

5. Ensure that public access and recreation in wood pasture and parkland is of low impact and sensitively managed, to avoid disturbance, especially to vital dead wood habitats.

6. Raise awareness of the value of wood pasture and parkland and the ancient trees and biodiversity of this habitat in Surrey.

7. Support the existing system of advice for good management practices and for information on available grants and incentives.

8. Encourage protective ownership of key sites as and when opportunities to purchase arise.

9. Use research and monitoring to ensure that advice and management are appropriate.

9. Targets

UK Targets

1. Protect and maintain the current extent (10-20,000 ha) and distribution of lowland wood pasture and parkland in a favourable ecological condition.

2. In areas where examples of derelict wood pasture and parkland occur, initiate a programme to restore 2,500 ha to favourable ecological condition by 2010.

3. By 2002, initiate the expansion of 500 ha of wood pasture or parkland, in appropriate areas, to help reverse fragmentation and reduce the generation gap between veteran trees.

Surrey Targets

Surrey WP&P Revised Targets (July 08)

1) Maintain 100% of existing wood pasture and parkland from the threat of agricultural intensification, development and degradation.

2) Ensure favourable management of 85% of existing wood pasture and parkland and ancient trees.

3) To gather and verify data to establish and update where historic, existing and potential WP&P lies within Surrey.

4) Start the process of restoring two sites per year which have been identified as WP&P in Surrey. 14 sites by 2015.

5) To restore the habitat around 5 existing mature, ancient, veteran or next generation open grown trees per borough per year. Especially where these occur as individual or small groups (and especially in urban and farmland settings).

6) Ensure that public access in wood pasture and parkland is of low impact and sensitively managed, to avoid disturbance, especially to veteran trees and to vital dead wood habitats.

7) Raise awareness of the value of wood pasture and parkland and the veteran trees and biodiversity of this habitat in Surrey.

8) Support the existing system of advice for good management practices and for information on available grants and incentives.

9) Encourage protective ownership of key sites as and when opportunities to purchase arise.

10) Promote research and monitoring to ensure that advice and management are appropriate.

10. Proposed Actions

Key to potential deliverers ATF Ancient Tree Forum CA Countryside Agency CMPs Countryside Management Projects CoL Corporation of London CRs County Recorders DEFRA Department for the Environment, Farming and Rural Affairs EH English Heritage EN English Nature FC Forestry Commission FR Forestry Research FWAG Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group HSE Health and Safety Executive Lantra National Training Organisation. Sector Skills Council for the environmental and Land-based Sector. LAs Local Authorities LPA Local Planning Authority NT National Trust SBP Surrey Biodiversity Partnership SBRC Surrey Biological Records Centre SCC Surrey County Council SGT Surrey Gardens Trust SHAONB Surrey Hills, Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty SNCLG Surrey National Conservation Liaison Group STOG Surrey Tree Officers’ Group SWT Surrey Wildlife Trust TROBI Tree Registry of the British Isles TWs Tree Wardens WPPwg Surrey Wood Pasture and Parkland Working Group WT Woodland Trust WWG Woodland Working Group

Priority I High priority II Medium priority III Low priority

Table 10.1 POLICY AND LEGISLATION

ACTION	Lead	Partners	Current Action	2003	2005	2012	Meets Objective number	PRIORITY
Tree Preservation Orders (TPOs) to be used to protect trees.	LAs	WWG, FC, NT			2, 4, 6	I
2. Develop an Ancient Tree Preservation Order (ATPO). With every Borough Council and FC to have an inventory of ancient trees in their areas.	WPPwg	LAs, FC			2, 4, 6	I
3. Develop a felling consent policy, especially for ancient trees.	FC, LAs	WWG			2, 6	II
4. Develop a felling licensing policy, especially for ancient trees.	FC, LAs	WWG			2, 6	II
5. Review safety legislation to ensure that it cannot be used to justify removing more of a tree than is necessary.	HSE, EN	Landowners, WWG		2, 6	III
6. Ensure that reviews in existing incentive schemes (e.g. Countryside Stewardship, Woodland Grant) enable and encourage the most appropriate management of wood pasture and parkland, and their ancient trees.	FC, DEFRA	WWG, CA			1, 2, 7, 8	I
7. Ensure adequate protection of wood pasture and parkland through the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations.	DEFRA	WPPwg			1	II
8. Review legislation and local plans to allow for grazing on wood pasture on commons.	LA	Landowners, LPA, WWG			1, 2, 4	I
9. Continue to notify wood pasture and parkland sites as SSSIs and LNRs as appropriate.	EN	WWG, SWT		1, 2	I
10. Continue to notify wood pasture and parkland sites as SNCIs as appropriate.	LA, SWT	WWG, SNCLG			1	I
Propose to the SNCLG that all sites with ten or more ancient trees be designated as SNCIs.	SWT	SNCLG, WPPwg		1	II

Table 10.2 SITE SAFEGUARD AND MANAGEMENT

ACTION POTENTIAL DELIVERERS YEAR
(to be complete or in place by) MEETS OBJ No PRIORITY
Lead Partners Current Action 2003 2004 2005 2010
Ensure all SSSIs containing wood pasture and parkland are in appropriate management for all aspects of the site.
EN Landowners  2 I
2. Ensure all wood pasture and parkland of SNCI status are offered appropriate management advice. SWT LAs, CMPs, FWAG, WPPwg  1, 2, 6 II
3. Ensure that ancient trees which do not qualify for SSSI protection, (i.e. being in small plots of land), are given protection.
LAs SWT, TWs  1, 2, 6 II
4. Develop site acquisitions policy and contingency fund.
WPPwg, SBP
SWT, WT  1, 8 I
5. Develop links for the pooling of livestock (linked to national grazing animals project) and machinery etc. for co-operative use.
CMP LAs, EN, CoL  1, 2 I
6. Encourage landowners to farm extensively and reduce chemical use, with advice and support.
DEFRA FWAG, WPPwg  2 II
7. Develop a directory of tree surgeons who have understanding of and are skilled in the management of ancient trees.
LAs (district)
WPPwg, SWT, CoL  2 II

Table 10.3 ADVISORY

ACTION POTENTIAL DELIVERERS YEAR (to be complete or in place by) MEETS OBJ No PRIORITY Lead Partners Current Action 2003 2005 2010

1. Provide training courses for landowners, contractors, graziers, advisers and officers in practical wood pasture and parkland management, creation and enhancement techniques and grant schemes etc.

WPPwg FWAG, CMPs, SWT, Lantra  1, 2, 4, 6, 7 II 2. Ensure restoration and creation efforts are targeted at appropriate sites to buffer and expand existing habitat islands. SWT LAs, EN  1, 4 II 3. Ensure that maps of known wood pasture and parkland sites are available to all partners on request, from the appropriate body. WPPwg SWT, LAs, SCC, EN  3, 6 I

Table 10.4 RESEARCH AND MONITORING

ACTION POTENTIAL DELIVERERS YEAR (to be complete or in place by) MEETS OBJ No PRIORITY Lead Partners Current Action 2003 2005 2012

1. Carry out a comprehensive review of existing research material. WPPwg

EN, SWT, ATF, CoL, NT, WT, SCC  2, 4, 7, 9 II 2. Identify appropriate indicator species associated with wood pasture and parkland in Surrey and monitor at key sites on a 5 yearly basis to assess habitat condition and response to climate change. WPPwg

EN, CoL, SWT, NT, ATF, WT  2, 9 I 3. Complete a comprehensive GIS survey of the extent of wood pasture and parkland, concentration of species and tree types, and age and classes. SCC, SWT

EN, SBRC, TROBI, NT, CoL, Landowners  1, 3, 9 II 4. Review delivery of plan 5 years after HAP publication. WPPwg

2007 All I

Table 10.5 COMMUNICATIONS AND PUBLICITY

ACTION POTENTIAL DELIVERERS YEAR (to be complete or in place by) MEET OBJ No PRIORITY Lead Partners Current Action 2003 2005 2012

1. Increase awareness of the national and international importance, and the vulnerability, of wood pasture and parklands, highlighting Surrey’s responsibility towards safeguarding this habitat.

WPPwg ATF / WT, LA, SCC, CMPs, SBRC  6 III 2. Increase awareness of the value of protecting ancient trees where these may be threatened by felling, for safety reasons, and promote alternative solutions such as pollarding or expert and minimal tree surgery. LA ATF / WT, NT, CoL, FR, SCC, CMPs, STOG  2, 4, 6 I 3. Ensure awareness of wider developments with regard to scientific research and funding, ensuring that this feeds into the management and restoration of sites in Surrey. EN, WPPwg ATF / WT, FR, CRs, SBRC, STOG, Alice Holt, CoL, Universities  2, 4, 9 III 4. Ensure that the biodiversity, landscape, heritage and cultural importance of parkland and wood pasture are promoted through a publicity programme. WPPwg ATF / WT, SGT, CMPs, STOG, EH  6 III 5. Publicise the Surrey wood pasture and parkland HAP and the work of the Surrey Wood Pasture and Parkland Working Group. WPPwg ATF / WT, STOG  all III 6. Promote extensive, chemical free meat and dairy production by owners. Promote Surrey wood pasture and parkland products. SH -AONB ATF / WT, High Weald Forum, Surrey Hills Brand, Surrey Quality Producers Group   2 I

11. Monitoring & Review

The Surrey Wood Pasture & Parkland Working Group, comprising representation from those organisations listed in Appendix III, will carry the report forward to implementation. By meeting on a biannual basis it will provide a strategic framework for the conservation and restoration of wood pasture and parkland, as a priority habitat, in Surrey. Progress towards delivering the Habitat Action Plan is to be reported to the Surrey Biodiversity Partnership Steering Group (SBPSG) on an annual basis as part of the overall reporting procedure for the Surrey Biodiversity Action Plan. The Surrey Wood Pasture & Parkland Habitat Action Plan will be reviewed by its respective working group five years after its publication. It is the responsibility of the working group to remain aware of wider developments concerning research, policy and funding for this habitat so as to inform and enhance opportunities for its conservation at the county level.

12. References and further reading

 Alexander, K., 1999. The invertebrates of Britain’s wood pastures. British Wildlife, Volume 11, Number 2, December 1999, pp108-117.  Baldock, D. W., 1999. Grasshoppers and Crickets of Surrey. Surrey Wildlife Trust.  Bannister NR & Wills PM, 2001. Surrey Historic Landscape Characterisation. Vol.s 1 & 2. Surrey County Council.  Butler J.E., 2001. Examples of the maintenance and restoration of wood pasture sites in the UK and the potential for creation. Grazing Conference Luneberg 2001.  Collins, G. A., 1995. Butterflies of Surrey. Surrey Wildlife Trust.  Collins, G. A., 1997. Larger Moths of Surrey. Surrey Wildlife Trust.  Cox, J. and Sanderson, N., 2001. Livestock Grazing in National Trust Parklands. National Trust.  Cox, J. 1999. The Nature Conservation Importance of Dung. British Wildlife. Volume 11, Number 1 October 1999, pp28-36.  Dobson A., Crawley M., 1994. Pathogens and structure of plant communities. Tree, vol. 9, no. 10.  English Nature. Natural Area Profiles: The High Weald The Low Weald and Pevensey Levels Wealden Greensand London Basin  English Nature. 1998. Lowland Wood pasture and Parkland Habitat Action Plan. In UK Biodiversity Group Tranche 2 Action Plans Volume II- terrestrial and freshwater habitats.  Follet, P., 1996. Dragonflies of Surrey. Surrey Wildlife Trust.  Gange, A.C. & Brown, V.K. (eds.) 1997. Multitrophic Interactions in Terrestrial Systems. Blackwell, Oxford.  Green E.E., 2001. The role of invisible biodiversity in pasture landscapes. Grazing conference Luneberg 2001.  Harding P.T. & Rose F, 1986. Pasture-woodlands in Lowland Britain: a review of their importance for wildlife conservation. National Environment Research Council, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology.  Haines-Young, R.H. et al. 2000. Accounting for nature: assessing habitats in the UK countryside. Countryside Survey 2000.  Hawkins, D. (2000). Ladybirds of Surrey. Surrey Wildlife Trust.  Kampf, H. 2000. The role of large grazing animals in nature conservation- a Dutch perspective. British Wildlife, Volume 12, Number 1, October 2000.  Kirby K. & Reid C. (ed.s), 2000. Wood pasture and parkland habitat action plan: Progress report 2000. English Nature Research Reports, number 396. English Nature.  Kirby, K., Kirby & Drake, C M No. 7 Dead wood matters: the ecology and conservation of saproxylic invertebrates in Britain.  Kirby P. 2001. Habitat Management for Invertebrates: A practical handbook. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.  Marren, P & Dickson, G. 2000. British tooth-fungi and their conservation. British Wildlife. Volume 11, Number 6, August 2000, pp401-409.  Merryweather J. (2001). Comment: Meet the Glomales – the ecology of mycorrhiza. British Wildlife. Vol 13, Number 2. Pp 86-93.  Morris, R.K.A. (1998). Hoverflies of Surrey. Surrey Wildllife Trust.  Rackham O., 1986. The History of the Countryside. J Dent & Sons.  Rose F., 1993. Ancient British woodlands and their epiphytes. British Wildlife. Vol.5, pp83-93.  Read H. 2000. Veteran Trees: A guide to good management. English Nature, Countryside Agency and English Heritage.  Simonson, W et al. 1999. Biodiversity: Making the Links. English Nature.  Surrey County Council, 1997. The Future of Surrey’s Landscape and Woodlands. Surrey County Council.  Vera, F. W. M., 2000. Grazing Ecology and Forest History. CABI Publishing.  Wicks, D. & Cloughley, P., 1998. The Biodiversity of South East England: An Audit and Assessment. Wildlife Trusts & the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.  Wycherley, J. & Anstis, R. (2001). Amphibians and Reptiles of Surrey. Surrey Wildlife Trust.  The UK Biodiversity Steering Group, 1995. Biodiversity: The UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report Volume2: Action Plans. HMSO.

13. Glossary

Most glossary words can be found in the introduction to “The Surrey Biodiversity Action Plan”. Useful words not found in the introduction are included here.

Bryophyte - Group name for mosses and liverworts. Epiphyte - A plant growing on another plant, without being parasitic. Extensive - When applied to animal grazing - means not intensive, a light grazing regime with few animals relative to the grazing space available. Mycorrhiza - A mutually beneficial association between a plant and a fungus. Occurs in or around the roots of the plant (from Greek meaning fungus-root). Open grown tree – A tree that has grown in the open without competition from other trees. Among other differences forest grown trees grow taller as they compete for light. Pollarding - Cutting limbs from a tree at a height where new growth will occur above the reach of browsing animals. Thus in a deer park the cut will take place higher than in a park where sheep are grazed. Saproxylic – A saproxylic species is one that is dependent on dead or decaying wood. Skewed age structure - Refers to a gap in generations of trees, where few young or medium aged trees are present to become the old and ancient trees of the future. Stag-horn tree - A tree showing dead branches among leaf-bearing branches. This occurs as a healthy part of a mature tree’s life.

Appendix I

Key Species Associated with Wood Pasture & Parkland in Surrey

English Name	Scientific Name	Taxa	Notes/micro-habitat	UK BAP Status	Other UK status	Status in Surrey
Spotted flycatcher	Muscicapa striata	Bird	P	BAP 2	Locally common
Grey heron	Ardea cinerea	Bird	Uncommon
Hobby	Falco subbuteo	Bird	BAP 3	Uncommon
Buzzard	Buteo buteo	Bird	BAP 3	Rare
Stock dove	Columba oenas	Bird	Locally common
Redstart	Phoenicurus phoenicurus	Bird	BAP 3	Uncommon
Tree sparrow	Passer montanus	Bird	P	BAP 2	Rare(no current nest sites)
Song thrush	Turdus philomelos	Bird	P	BAP 1	Numerous resident
Bechstein's bat	Myotis bechsteini	Mammal	P	BAP 2	Rare
Greater horsehoe bat	Rhinolophus ferrumequinum	Mammal	P	BAP 1	Very rare
Great crested newt	Triturus cristatus	Amphibian	Ponds and surrounding areas.	P	BAP 1	Rare
A false darkling beetle	Abdera biflexuosa	Coleoptera (beetles)	Breeds in rotten hardwood, mostly oak.	Notable b	Y
A false darkling beetle, saproxylic	Abdera quadrifasciata	Coleoptera	Rotten hardwood, mostly oak and beech. Ancient woodland indicator.	Notable a	Y
A testaceous beetle	Aderus ocultus	Coleoptera	Stag-horn oaks. Ancient woodland indicator.	Notable b	Y
A jewel beetle	Agrilus laticornis	Coleoptera	Larvae in dying, hard wood, especially oak.	Notable b	Widespread but local
A saproxylic beetle	Ampedus cardinalis	Coleoptera	A grade 1 indicator of huge old red rotted oaks.	RDB 2	Y
A saproxylic beetle	Ampedus nigerrimus	Coleoptera	Old oaks.	P	RDB 1	WGP
A saproxylic beetle	Ampedus ruficeps	Coleoptera	Old oaks	RDB 1	WGP
A saproxylic beetle	Ampedus rufipennis	Coleoptera	RDB 2	Y
A flea beetle	Chaetocnema subcoerulea	Coleoptera	Rushes in wetland sites in parks.	Notable b	Y
A beetle	Colydium elongatum	Coleoptera	RDB 3	Y
A woodworm	Dorcatoma flavicornis	Coleoptera	Red rotten oaks and other trees. Ancient woodland indicator.	Notable b	Y
A ground beetle	Dromius quadrisignatus	Coleoptera	RDB 1	(Old records)
A saproxylic beetle	Dryophthorus corticalis	Coleoptera	Old oaks.	RDB 1	WGP
A saproxylic beetle	Elater ferrugineus	Coleoptera	Old oaks.	RDB 1	Y
A saproxylic beetle	Eucnemis capucina	Coleoptera		RDB 1	WGP
A wood-boring beetle	Gastrallus immarginatus	Coleoptera	Bark of field maple, Acer campestre	P	RDB 1	Y
A chafer	Gnorimus nobilis	Coleoptera			P	RDB 2/3	(Old records)
A chafer	Gnorimus variabilis	Coleoptera			RDB 1	WGP
A longhorn beetle	Grammoptera ustulata	Coleoptera	Breeds in dead hardwood. Ancient woodland indicator.	RDB 3	Y
A flower beetle	Ischnomera cyanea	Coleoptera	Larvae in rotting wood. Adults visit flowers.		Notable b	Y
A saproxylic beetle	Lacon quercus	Coleoptera		P	RDB 1	Widespread but rare
	Leptura revestita	Coleoptera			RDB 1/2	Y
Violet click beetle	Limoniscus violaceus	Coleoptera		P	RDB 1	WGP, but thought to be present in Surrey
A saproxylic beetle	Lissodema quadripustulata	Coleoptera	Beneath bark and in dead wood.		Notable b	Y
Stag beetle	Lucanus cervus	Coleoptera	Breeds in old stumps.	P	Notable b	Declining Widespread local
A beetle	Lymexylon navale	Coleoptera			RDB 1/2	Vulnerable
A soldier beetle	Malthinus frontalis	Coleoptera	Larvae - dead twigs and branches. Larvae and adults are predatory.		Notable b	Y
A saproxylic beetle	Megapenthes lugens	Coleoptera	Old beech trees	P	RDB 1	(Old records)

Melandrya barbata Coleoptera In decaying wood of beech and oak. RDB 1/2 Endangered A false click beetle Melasis buprestoides Coleoptera Rotten hardwood, powdery dead oak branches. Notable b Very local Rhizophagus oblongicollis Coleoptera RDB1/2  Scraptid beetle Scraptia testacea Coleoptera Larvae develop in red rotten oak. Grade 1 Ancient woodland indicator RDB 3  A beetle Teredus cylindrius Coleoptera RDB 1 Endangered

A hoverfly Callicera aurata Diptera (Fly) Rot-holes ancient trees, adults visit flowers of firethorn. RDB 3 Rare A fly Myennis octopunctata Diptera Associated with decaying black poplars. RDB 2 Rare, very local A hoverfly Neoascia interrupta Diptera Marshes and beside ponds in parkland. Notable b Rare A hoverfly Psilota anthracina Diptera Sap runs. RDB 2 Rare A stilt fly Rainieria calceata Diptera Old beeches. RDB 1 Rare, very local An arboreal ant Lasius brunneus Hymenoptera Old oaks and limes and dead stumps. Notable a  A wasp Rhophalum Hymenoptera  A wasp Sapyga clavicornis Hymenoptera Dead wood, fallen wood, stumps. Parasitic on Chelostoma and Osmia bees. Notable b  A solitary wasp Stigmus spp. Hymenoptera RDB K  A mirid bug Deraeocoris olivaceous Hemiptera On hawthorns, only in Southern counties. Notable b  Heart moth Dicycla oo Moth Old open grown oaks. P RDB 3 Local and uncommon Double line Mythimna turca Moth P Notable b Very local (Old Surrey only) Clay fan-foot Paracolax tristalis Moth P BAP 2 Notable a Very local and rare. Possibly declining. Common fan-foot Pechipogo strigilata Moth BAP 2 Notable a Very local and rare Jumping spider Salticus zebraneus Spider Lurks under loose bark – found in southern England only. Notable a Local Orb-weaving spider Tetragnatha pinicola

Spider Notable b Local not uncommon in Surrey A bolete Boletus radicans (B. albidus) Fungi Mycorrhizal with oaks and other trees. Scarce  A bolete Boletus queletii Fungi Beech and oak.  A Bolete Boletus pseudoregius Fungi Oak and beech. P Critical WGP Devil’s Bolete Boletus satanas Fungi Beech. P Vulnerable  Chalciporus rubinus Fungi Oak. Vulnerable  Oak polypore Piptoporus quercinus (Buglossoporus pulvinus) Fungi Ancient oaks. P Endangered  Tree hedgehog Hericeum erinaceum Fungi Wounds of old trees and ends of fallen trunks. P Vulnerable  Hericium coralloides Fungi Vulnerable  Phellinus robustus Fungi On ancient oak. Endangered  Podoscypha multizonata Fungi Old oaks. Very rare Rare Ganoderma pfeifferi Fungi On ancient Beech trees. Unknown RDB in Europe WGP A lichen Calicium gaucellum Lichen Exposed heart-wood.  A lichen Calicium salicinum Lichen Exposed heart-wood.  A lichen Thelopsis rubella Lichen Rough bark. Local 

Key RDB 1 Listed in Red Data Book (Perring & Farrell, 1983). Nationally endangered RDB 2 Listed in Red Data Book (Perring & Farrell, 1983). Nationally vulnerable RDB 3 Listed in Red Data Book (Perring & Farrell, 1983). Nationally rare. P Priority species (formerly short, BAP1 and middle, BAP2, list species) see the UK Steering Group, (1995) LL Long list of Globally threatened / declining species, see the UK Steering Group, (1995) Notable a Occurs in 30 or less 10Km squares of the national grid. Notable b Occurs in between 31 –100 10Km squares of the national grid.  Indicates the presence of a species in Surrey when the status for Surrey is unknown. WGP Windsor Great Park or Windsor Forest (parts of which occur in Surrey)

Appendix II Useful Contacts

Ancient Tree Forum P.O. Box 49, Ashtead, Surrey, KT21 1YG.

Department for the Environment, Farming and Rural Affairs DEFRA RDS (SE), Block C, Government Buildings, 98 Epsom road, Guildford, GU1 2LD. Tel: 0118 9581222

English Heritage 23 Saville Row, London, W1X 1AB. Tel: 020 7973 3000

English Nature Sussex and Surrey Team, Howard House, 31 High Street, Lewes, East Sussex, BN7 2LU. Tel: 01273 476595 Northminster House, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, PE1 1UA. Tel: 01733 455 000

Environment Agency Thames Region, South East Area, Swift House, Frimley Business Park, Camberley, Surrey, GU16 5SQ. Tel: Thames 01276 454300, Southern 01903 832000

Farming and Wildlife advisory Group B Block, 98 Epsom Road, Guildford, Surrey, GU1 2LD. Tel: 01483 404255

Forestry Commission South East England Conservancy, Alice Holt, Wrecclesham, Farnham, Surrey, GU10 4LF. National Office for England, Great Eastern House, Tenison Road, Cambridge, CB1 2DU. Tel: 01223 314 546

Surrey Wildlife Trust School Lane, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey, GU24 0JN. Tel: 01483 488 055.

Appendix III

WOOD PASTURE AND PARKLAND WORKING GROUP

Working Group Lead: Sue Webber Surrey Wildlife Trust

Working Group Members: Jill Barton, Steve Livsey-Bennett Surrey Wildlife Trust

Louise Hutchinson, Natural England

Ted Green, Bill Cathcart, Windsor Great Park, Crown Estates

Siomon Humphreys National Trust

Gordon Pfetscher Woodland Trust

Lizzie Bruce Corporation of LondonPatrick Stevens Forestry Commission

This Habitat Action Plan has been prepared by Sue Webber, of The Surrey Wildlife Trust, on behalf of the Surrey Biodiversity Partnership.

Many thanks to all those who have helped with their time and expertise: Richard Anstis, Ross Baker, Michael Baxter, Roger Booth, Jill Butler, Peter Chandler, Jonty Denton, Frank Dobson, Ron Hills, Gail Jeffcoate, Chris Matcham, Judy Sauter, Brian Spooner, Ray Tantrum, Jeffery Wheatley and the whole of the working group.

I offer my sincere apologies if I have missed anyone off the list. Sue Webber, Biodiversity Officer, Surrey Wildlife Trust.